5. The Art of Ancient Rome (27 BC – 476 AD)
A short history of the Roman Empire:
Rome was founded around 750 BC by the legendary king Romulus. In 509 BC, Rome became a republic, ruled by a Senate, and by the people. This lasted 450 years, during which the Roman Republic expanded throughout Europe and the Mediterranean. During this time, Rome conquered Greece and assimilated much of Greek culture - their art, architecture, philosophy, and religion.
In 51 BC, Julius Caesar defeated the Gauls and became Rome's most powerful general, so powerful that the Senate feared him. They ordered him to step down, and Julius refused, beginning a civil war. Julius Caesar won this war, proclaiming himself emperor for life... But a group of Senators, including his friend Brutus, killed him in 44 BC, stabbing him to death.
But, Caesar had a son, Octavian. He defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra, and became Rome's second Emperor, changing his name to Augustus. The Roman republic was at an end. Now it was an empire. This empire lasted for 500 years, during which it expanded to Britain, Syria, and Egypt. In 313 AD, Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity and made it the official religion of Rome.
In 330 AD, the Roman Empire split in two, beginning the eastern Byzantine Empire, a Christian kingdom that circled the Mediterranean Sea. It had its own emperors, armies, and government. It began when Emperor Constantine moved his seat of power to the eastern city of Byzantium, which he renamed Constantinople.
This empire would last until 1453, when Constantinople was defeated by the Ottoman Turks, and became Istanbul.
The Western Roman Empire fell much earlier, in 470 AD, due to several reasons. Part of the problem was it was too large to manage. This is called over-expansion. Imagine trying to govern all that land without our modern technology: no modern transport, or communication. Add to this, a series of weak emperors, civil war, financial crisis, and barbarian invasions.
The Art of Ancient Rome
Roman art consisted of marble sculpture, painting, mosaics, jewelry & other metalwork, and glass blowing, which Romans often used in place of ceramics. While Roman artists were great, most of their names have been lost. Roman historians paid no attention to them, instead focusing on the great Greek artists they often copied. The few names we have come from Roman tombstones.
Romans loved Greek art, and culture. In fact, they enslaved many Greeks to serve as teachers for their children, bringing much knowledge and Greek culture back to Rome. It's lucky for us, because many of the original Greek artworks were destroyed – all that remain are Roman copies. But, Roman artists didn't just copy. The best of them added a sense of humour (often dark) to their works, making it distinctly Roman. Besides Greece, Roman art was also influenced by Egypt and the Etruscans (a civilization also located in Italy that pre-dated the Romans).
Another change was Roman portraiture. Greeks idealized figures, but Romans preferred a more realistic look. They were proud of their age, their wrinkles and bald head, as it represented their many years of service––especially while Rome remained a republic:
After Rome switched from a republic to an empire, its artistic style went back to that of classical Greece, stressing the perfection of their country, with perfect, ideal figures. Augustus Caesar, for example, made his portraits look like a young athlete, even up to his death.
Fun note: If you’re curious about the little baby by his feet, it’s actually the god Cupid, riding a dolphin. The dolphin symbolized Caesar’s naval victory against Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium. And Cupid, son of Venus, signaled Caesar’s divine status, since he claimed he too was descended from Venus.
Starting around 200 AD, as Romans began to accept Christianity, Roman art shifted style. Realism became less important. Roman design became simpler, more childlike:
By the end of the empire, Romans developed the same Byzantine style of art that characterized the dark ages. So, Roman art began to fall in the same way that Rome did.
The underlying philosophy of the period:
Romans followed the philosophies of the Greek slaves they brought home as teachers, particularly stoicism and Epicureanism. These two philosophies contradicted each other – Some Romans preferred the Stoics, who worked hard, and cared little for happiness, in the hopes their good deeds would make them well loved by history. One example is the Caesar Marcus Aurelius, who wrote Meditations, about his stoic beliefs. Epicures, on the other hand, disagreed, believing that one should live for enjoyment because tomorrow you will die. As Rome became Christian, this fell out of favor, as Romans took up Saint Augustine of Hippo as their main philosopher. He came up with the Christian notions of original sin, the holy trinity, and the conditions of a “just war.” Note, although he was born in Algeria, he’s always been presented in art as a bearded white man.
For early Christians, belief in God was paramount, and they focused their effort on preparing for the afterlife. Art was not a prime concern. Christians believed that idolatry, the creation and worship of a sacred image, or icon, was a sin. This belief stemmed from the Ten Commandments given by God to Moses. It might come as a surprise, but there is no consensus on what the Ten Commandments actually are. Different Christian faiths argue over the wording, numbering, and division of these laws.
According to Catholic doctrine, the first commandment states there is only one God, no others shall be worshipped, nor “graven images” be made, “or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth; you shall not bow down to them or serve them.” So, in other words, it’s not that you can’t draw things, you just can’t worship them.
But, Orthodox Christians, Reformed Christians (such as Calvinists), and the Jewish faith break this up into two commandments. Jews originally considered any and all image making counter to their faith, although attitudes shifted over time. John Calvin preached against any and all religious art as idolatry. Later, followers of Islam also preached against idolatry. This dilemma eventually led to Iconoclasm – times when Christians burned and destroyed their own art, stripping churches bare. This was also a problem, because when most people were illiterate, images were the easiest way to teach religious lessons. Christians also feared pride, as one of the seven deadly sins, so religious works were rarely if ever signed. This habit would continue up into the Renaissance.
The Art of Early Christianity
The rise of Christianity in the Roman Empire did not initially result in a large amount of art. Until Emperor Constantine’s Edict of Milan in 313 AD, Christianity was illegal, and Christians were regularly killed for sport in Rome’s Colosseum. To hide their faith, early Christians would use pagan symbols, such as the peacock, the grapevine and the “good shepherd”, to secretly represent Jesus. The legalization of Christianity is what divides Early European Christian Art into its two periods: before and after the Edict of Milan.
The chapel above is located in what’s now referred to as the Catacombs of Saints Marcellinus and Peter, near Rome. While the structure was built around 200 AD, the saints were killed for their beliefs in 304, shortly before Christianity became legal. The walls could’ve been painted before or after, as other saints were already buried there. Marcellinus and Peter are famous for two reasons. First of all, although they were buried out in the woods where no one would find them, their followers were able to find their bodies (a miracle), and rebury them here, secretly. Second, these two saints were very persuasive. They converted their jailor and executioner to Christianity, so that they too were executed and became saints.
After Constantine made Christianity the official religion of Rome, he needed to build churches. Not wanting to copy pagan temples, he decided to convert basilicas, which were originally civic centers of law, where magistrates listened to cases and made judgments. They had no religious connotations, and were large enough to house the growing numbers of Christian converts. More importantly, most Roman cities already had one, so they were easy to modify. Thus, the basilica became the basis for the first churches.
How was it represented in the other arts – music, architecture, and literature?
The Romans were incredible builders. They made strong roads that still exist today, elaborate bath houses with pools at different temperatures – all heated through an intricate network of pipes. But, their major innovation was the introduction of the archway, which they used to great effect, making stronger bridges and ceilings, and creating engineering projects like aqueducts to carry clean running water to far away towns.
Like the ancient Greeks, we don’t know a lot about Roman music. Not much remains of their instruments, only what we see in surviving sculptures and paintings. Some contemporary groups have tried recreating the sound of ancient Rome, but no one can confirm the authenticity.
Unlike the Greeks, some Roman painting survived, for example the murals in the homes of Pompeii that were buried in ash during the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. Other examples include the tomb portraits of Romans living in Egypt, as the arid climate preserved them.
Like the Greeks, Romans wrote a great deal of literature, poetry, drama, and philosophy, and we can thank the Byzantine Empire, along with various Muslim nations for keeping this knowledge, while it was lost in Medieval Europe. Thankfully, much of it still exists for study today.
What made it great?
The art of Rome reflected its culture: powerful, grandiose, imposing, and very, very big. Like the Egyptians before them, Romans aspired to create monuments that would last forever. Even as they now lay in ruins, they continue to inspire generations of new artists and thinkers.
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