3. The Art of Ancient Egypt (≈3000 BC – 100 AD)
What was it about? What were the goals?
Because ancient Egypt is a long-lost culture, what we know of it comes from historical texts and archaeological digs, and the art we commonly associate with Egypt (or at least what the archaeologists search for the most) are the artifacts of the pharaohs, the kings who ruled Egypt for thousands of years. Our most prized finds come from their large and elaborate tombs. We also find artifacts from buried cities and ships.
Egyptian art is considered formal, static (meaning motionless), blocky, and abstract. It's simpler and possibly more childlike than Greek and Roman art, but this does not mean Egyptian artists were inferior. Their art served a different purpose, chiefly religious. Some statues were even bathed, dressed, and carried in processions. Egyptian style varied depending on the materials used. Stone sculptures were very stiff and formal, with arms close to the sides of the body. But Egyptians also carved wooden figures doing all sorts of activities, looking more realistic:
Egyptian art was not merely decorative, it was functional. It was not meant to be seen. Egyptians painted the walls of tombs and then sealed them, hiding the entrances to prevent thieves from stealing all the treasures within. Egyptian tombs were painted with figures of servants to care for the pharaoh in the afterlife. This was a great relief to the Pharoah’s many servants––previously, in the many kingdoms of Mesopotamia, servants would be ritually killed and buried with their master. This was common practice in the ancient world, including in the Americas. Allowing painted people on tomb walls to take the place of real servants was a major step up in civilization and ethics.
But, this made painting extremely important. If an artist forgot to add a loaf of bread in a Pharoah's tomb, he wouldn't have any bread to eat. That is why it was so important to include everything he needed. This also explains the highly stylized forms of the figures, who showed no use of foreshortening. Their faces are in profile to ensure they would have noses, while their eyes were painted from the front, to make sure they could see. The feet were painted in profile while the torso was shown from the front, to get both shoulders showing.
Egyptians painted stories in registers, meaning parallel lines, the way we write on paper today. Each line on the wall tells a different part of a story. Artists also used scale to create a hierarchy. The biggest people in the paintings were gods and pharaohs. Common workers were painted very small because they were less important. A Pharoah’s wife would be slightly smaller than the pharaoh, and would usually have a slightly lighter skin color. Almost all Egyptian paintings include hieroglyphics to explain the scene and the names of the characters.
The underlying philosophy of this age:
Like all early civilizations, both the religion and artwork of Egypt was used to support the pharaoh––the leading political authority. Egyptians were famous for their rigid consistency. They kept the same religion, fashion and style of art for their entire history, with few minor exceptions. Egyptians worshipped and venerated their ancestors. Most homes had small shrines to ancestors where families would offer food, wine, and perfume. They would even write letters to ancestors asking for help and advice.
Egyptians held their artistic traditions to promote stability and balance in society and the world. They saw the universe as consisting of cycles that must be preserved. And luckily, their geography helped them to do that––with only desert to the south, the only land route for marauding invaders came from the Sinai Peninsula to the north. By closely guarding that passage, the Egyptian empire was able to flourish while the peoples Mesopotamia fought one another. And so, Egypt was able to create large palaces and pyramids, its own unique written language, the process of mummification, and a calendar based on the flow of the river Nile, that was more accurate than what Sumerians had used.
How was their culture represented in other arts – music, architecture, and literature?
While the civilization of ancient Egypt produced every kind of art, much of it is lost. No one knows what their music sounded like. We have learned the language of ancient Hieroglyphics, thanks to translations found in the Rosetta stone, and many great monuments still remain, but it’s hard to say what literature they had apart from surviving historical and religious texts.
What made it great?
The art and architecture of ancient Egypt are breathtaking in their monumental size and scale. They showed the world what humanity was capable of, to dream and think big, not simply as artists, but as a nation. Egyptian art was a huge influence on Greek, Roman, and even our contemporary art and life. After the Egyptians, it took almost 4000 years for anyone to build something taller than their pyramids.
Another impressive feat was the Egyptian use of granite in sculpture. Granite is an extremely hard stone, making it a challenge to carve. Those sculptures made from granite are so strong, many of them look like they were made yesterday, even after thousands of years.
A bit of history:
The civilization of ancient Egypt lasted 3000 years. It had over 33 dynasties of ruling families, and can be divided into the:
⦁ Old Kingdom c. 2649 - 2150 BC
⦁ Middle Kingdom c. 2030 - 1640 BC
⦁ New Kingdom c. 1550 - 1070 BC
⦁ Late Period c. 712 - 332 BC
⦁ Ptolemaic Period c. 332 - 30 BC
The years for the dates below may seem oddly specific – it’s a testament to Egyptian record keeping that we can guess so accurately, based on translating ancient hieroglyphs. Between each Kingdom period there are also intermediary periods.
The Old Kingdom: c. 2686-2181 BC (3rd – 6th Dynasties)
This was the Age of the Pyramids. It was a time of prosperity and safety. This period began with the king Djoser, who united all the cities of Egypt, and made the rulers his governors. He moved his capital to Memphis and built the first Egyptian step pyramid.
Next came King Sneferu, who built three attempts at pyramids: the collapsed Pyramid at Meidan, and the Bent and Red Pyramids at Dahshur. After him, King Khufu built the Great Pyramid at Giza, and possibly also the Sphinx, although scholars debate whether Khufu or one of his sons commissioned it.
The Old Kingdom ended as the king lost his influence, regional governors acted independently, the King Pepi II’s family fell into civil war, and a long drought led to famine.
Some leading figures:
Imhotep (c. 2,650-2,600 BC) was chief architect for King Djoser, and designer for his step pyramid.
Some of the most famous artworks of the time:
Middle Kingdom: c. 2134-1690 BC (11th – 12th Dynasties)
Known as the Period of Reunification, this was mainly a time of army building and conquest. Pharoahs built many forts along their borders. Their tombs were mud brick pyramid complexes, with an out layer of limestone. Unfortunately the limestone was pilfered by later rulers, leaving the mud brick to erode away, so little building of this time still exists. The Middle Kingdom ended with the invasion of the Hyksos armies, who used chariots to gain superiority over Egyptian forces. Although militarily superior, the Hyksos had little culture of their own, and were largely absorbed into Egyptian civilization.
Some of the most famous artworks of the time:
New Kingdom: c. 1549-1069 BC (18th – 20th Dynasties)
Also called the Egyptian Empire, this is when Ancient Egypt reached its peak, and greatest size. They fought the Hittites in Syria and the Nubians down in Sudan. At this time there were some very powerful pharaohs, like Thutmose III, called the “Napoleon of Egypt”. He was first to take the name Pharaoh, which previously referred to the Egyptian king’s palace.
Another big name was the Pharaoh Akhenaten – he and his wife Nefertiti changed the state religion to monotheism, worshipping the sun god Aten. They also moved the capital to the new city of Tel el-Amarna. After they died, their history was quickly erased as their son, Tutankhamen, returned Egypt to its traditional beliefs. Tel el-Amarna was not only abandoned, but disassembled, and its stones used in new buildings.
Ramesses II ruled for over fifty years, siring many children. He built the largest tomb complex in Egyptian history for his family in the Valley of the Kings.
The New Kingdom came to an end due to invasions by sea and land that bankrupted the country. It’s possible a volcanic eruption in Iceland led to cold, cloudy conditions around the globe, leading to famine.
Some leading figures:
Queen Hatshepshut (1507-1458 BC) ruled as a pharaoh and ordered a great deal of temple construction and decoration during her reign.
Some of the most famous artworks of the time:
Late Period: c. 653-332 BC
By this time Egypt had been invaded by the Assyrian Empire, but that itself was in decay. So, King Psatik I hired some Greek mercenaries to kick out the Assyrian forces, and Egypt was free once again. That lasted until the Persian invasion in 525 BC. Egyptians revolted and protested, and power fluctuated between native Egyptians and Persians for a time, up until 332 BC when Persia handed Egypt over to Alexander the Great, of Greece, without a fight – one can only wonder why.
Despite the turbulent political situation at this time, Egyptian art flourished in largely the same style as before. Temples were built with little Greek influence. Some say the painting became slightly more realistic. At this time Horus Stelae became popular. These were statues of Horus, standing on a dangerous beast, and holding two snakes as he was impervious to venom.
Some of the most famous artworks of the time:
(Greek) Ptolemaic Period: c. 332-30 BC
Alexander the Great is viewed by history as a liberator of Egypt, from the Persians. He established a new Greek city of Alexandria, on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea – it still exists today. Ancient Alexandria was a center for trade and learning, with its prized library being one of the ancient wonders of the world. Another was it’s lighthouse, to protect ships at night.
Alexander, dying young, gave Egypt to one of his generals, Ptolemy I Soter, who decided to rule in Egyptian style, supporting the local traditions and religion. Egyptians still rebelled, and the province remained unstable, leading to Roman invasion – as they relied on Egypt for grain.
The Roman emperor Octavian (later changing his name to Augustus) defeated Egypt, then ruled by Marc Antony and Cleopatra, in 30 BC. Both Marc and Cleopatra committed suicide, Marc falling on his own sword, and Cleopatra succumbing to a venomous snake bite.
Some of the most famous artworks of the time:
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